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A list of all available Police Foundation publications is available at http://www.policefoundation.org/docs/titles.html. Permission to reproduce or reuse Police Foundation copyrighted material is readily granted for non-commercial, educational purposes. See Copyright Information for details. Posting Police Foundation copyrighted material on other Web sites is not permitted but the foundation welcomes external links to material posted on its Web site. TOPICSCommunity Policing (see Practices & Strategies) Crime Mapping/Crime Analysis/Problem Analysis Personnel (Education, Performance, Recruitment, Selection, Training) SERIES AND OCCASIONAL PAPERS
CompstatCompstat and Organizational Change in the Lowell Police Department: Challenges and Opportunities (2004) (10.2 MB) (96 pages) James J. Willis, Stephen D. Mastrofski, David Weisburd, and Rosann Greenspan This report examines the special challenges and opportunities that arise when small departments try to institute a program of organizational change that originated in much larger agencies. The report serves three purposes: (1) to provide a detailed description of Lowell’s Compstat program that should interest police chiefs and other police personnel who are curious about Compstat; (2) to explain the benefits and challenges of implementing the various key elements of Compstat; and (3) to use our knowledge of Lowell to provide some insights into Compstat’s future in law enforcement. Compstat in Practice: An In-Depth Analysis of Three Cities (2004) (705 KB) (99 pages) James J. Willis, Stephen D. Mastrofski, and David Weisburd This report explores the relationship between the theory and practice of Compstat in three police departments of different size, organizational structure, and crime environment. It shows how police managers and officers adapted their routine tasks and activities to Compstat’s focus on accountability, innovative problem solving, and crime fighting. The challenges they faced in doing so reflected the culture of the individual department, the availability of resources for personnel, the sophistication of technology, and management’s commitment to the program. The distinct experiences of the three departments—Lowell, MA; Minneapolis, MN; and Newark, NJ—reveal Compstat’s complexities, highlight its contributions, and provide some insights into the direction it is leading U.S. policing. The Growth of Compstat in American Policing, Police Foundation Report (April 2004) (211 KB) (18 pages) David Weisburd, Stephen D. Mastrofski, Rosann Greenspan, and James J. Willis This research brief describes the national survey that assessed the number of U.S. police agencies using Compstat and measured the degree to which the elements of Compstat were part of their routine and structure. This is the second report in a series of three that resulted from the larger, NIJ-funded project, Compstat and Organizational Change: Findings from a National Survey. CRIME MAPPING/CRIME ANALYSIS/PROBLEM ANALYSISAdvanced Problem Analysis, Crime Analysis, and Crime Mapping Training Curriculum Generally, this training is designed for individuals who are already experienced with basic problem solving, crime analysis, and crime mapping techniques. The purpose of this training is to expose participants to the application of criminological theory and research methods in a policing environment, intermediate and advanced spatial analysis techniques, collection and analysis of different types of data sources, evaluation of responses to crime problems, tips on improving presentations, products, and writing skills, and problem analysis case studies. The training curriculum consists of several components including:
The training is designed for a person with experience in problem solving, problem analysis, crime analysis, and crime mapping to use to instruct practitioners and students in these areas. It is not a tutorial for practitioners; however, analysts may find the concepts and techniques as they are presented in the curriculum helpful. Crime Analysis Case Studies (2011) (2.5 MB) (68 pages) Greg Jones and Mary Malina, Editors With support from the Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, the Police Foundation developed this collection of case studies that examine practical yet unique crime and disorder problems. These case studies are written by crime analysts and practitioners to demonstrate the processes, tools, and research crime analysts use to understand as well as to find viable, comprehensive solutions to crime and disorder problems. Each case study draws upon an analyst’s experience, training, and basic problem-solving skills; however, several draw upon the problem-analysis process as well. Each case study follows a uniform format using SARA, which enables a systematic review of a problem to facilitate well-developed, targeted response(s). Crime Analysis and Crime Mapping Information Clearinghouse 2006 (8th Edition) (203 KB) This clearinghouse provides a comprehensive list of bibliographic and Internet resources that may be useful to practitioners and researchers interested in the disciplines of problem analysis, crime analysis, and crime mapping. The bibliographic references are composed of books, articles, and reports that relate to topics such as crime analysis, problem solving, geographic information systems (GIS), crime mapping, and Internet mapping. The Internet resources provided at the end of the document include links to additional sources of information concerning crime analysis and crime mapping. This edition contains over 130 new bibliographic references, which indicates the increase in research and practice in this emerging field of crime analysis, GIS, and crime mapping. Finally, there is a new resource category entitled “Journey to Crime” that has been added to the clearinghouse. Crime Analysis and Mapping Product Templates (2001) The crime analysis and mapping product templates have been designed to serve as models for law enforcement analysts who wish to prepare standardized crime analysis reports, bulletins, and maps. The Police Foundation’s Crime Mapping Laboratory has collected over 100 examples of crime analysis reports (annual, monthly, weekly, and daily reports of crime and calls for service), memos, crime trend bulletins, and maps submitted by 20 law enforcement agencies across the United States. The products we received range from simple, one-page bulletins or maps to more detailed problem-solving reports that include multiple tables, charts, and maps. After collecting these examples from the field, we categorized and analyzed them to look for commonalities in format, content, relevance, and overall effectiveness in conveying information in a concise manner. With this knowledge, we have created 11 product templates that can be adapted for use by any law enforcement agency. Crossing the Borders of Crime: Factors Influencing the Utility and Practicality of Interjurisdictional Crime Mapping (2002) (549 KB) (16 pages) John E. Eck Mapping across jurisdictions has emerged as a major problem in the integration of crime mapping into police problem solving. Crime problems often cross jurisdictional boundaries, while crime analysis is often based within specific jurisdictions. John Eck, Associate Professor of Criminal Justice at the University of Cincinnati, argues the main impediments to the development of effective cross-jurisdictional crime mapping systems lie not in the technologies but in the organizational structures and patterns of police agencies. Frequently Asked Questions of Crime Analysis and Mapping (2001) (74 KB) This is a list of five frequently asked questions and answers gleaned from the Police Foundation Crime Mapping &Problem Analysis Laboratory’s technical assistance efforts. The answer to each question includes links to other crime analysis and mapping resources, such as publications and Web pages that provide useful and comprehensive information about that particular topic. Guidelines to Implement and Evaluate Crime Analysis and Mapping in Law Enforcement (2000) (328 KB) This document is meant to serve as a guide for the processes of implementing and evaluating crime analysis and mapping for law enforcement agencies that do not currently have the function in place as well as those that are looking to reevaluate and restructure their current crime analysis and mapping functions. It provides a general outline for (1) developing a needs assessment, (2) creating an action plan based on the assessment, and (3) conducting an evaluation of crime analysis and mapping. This report is not meant to be a step-by-step guide for these three processes but instead offers suggestions and guidance on what and how to collect relevant information, while citing practical examples. Integrated Intelligence and Crime Analysis: Enhanced Information Management for Law Enforcement Leaders (2007) (4.3 MB) (48 pages) Jerry H. Ratcliffe Data and information about the criminal environment and criminal activity abound: the challenge is to corral this wealth of data into knowledge that can enhance decision making, improve strategies to combat crime, and increase crime prevention benefits. In other words, the aim is to convert data and information into actionable intelligence. This report is designed to identify the key challenges limiting criminal intelligence sharing, the aims of the integrated analysis model, and the way that all police departments, big or small, can work individually and collectively towards the new intelligence-led policing paradigm of modern policing. Integrating Community Policing and Computer Mapping: Assessing Issues and Needs Among COPS Office Grantees (2000) (160 KB) This report discusses the results of a telephone survey of 51 law enforcement agencies that have received funding from the COPS Office. This survey was conducted by the Crime Mapping Laboratory to determine the agencies’ development as users of computer mapping and to facilitate the successful implementation of the technology. Although the findings of the survey are not generalizable to all agencies, they are suggestive and provide valuable insight into the issues and problems that some law enforcement agencies face as they integrate crime mapping into their operations. Introductory Guide to Crime Analysis and Mapping (2001) (2.44 MB) This introductory guide was developed from the curriculum for the "Introduction to Crime Analysis Mapping and Problem Solving" training course conducted by members of the Police Foundation's Crime Mapping Laboratory in 2001 and funded by the Office of Community Oriented Policing Services. The purpose of this document is to convert the information presented in the training into a succinct and readable report that makes it available to a larger audience than was reached through the training sessions. It is not intended to be a comprehensive document on crime analysis, crime mapping, and problem solving, but rather a "starter" guidebook for someone just entering the field or a reference manual for current crime analysts or other law enforcement analysts. The format of the document follows the format of the training slides loosely, but it is not necessary to read them together. Manual of Crime Analysis Map Production (2000) (883KB) Through discussion and comprehensive examples, this manual provides guidelines for introductory-level crime analysis mapping for use in a law enforcement environment. To produce accurate and effective crime maps, there are three initial factors to consider: (1) the purpose of the map, (2) the audience of the map, and (3) the types of data to include in the map. These considerations often dictate the type of map that will be used and the method of presentation. This manual begins with a brief examination of these initial factors, follows with a discussion of the types of maps and design elements, and concludes with five comprehensive examples that illustrate the process of crime analysis mapping. Mapping for Community-Based Prisoner Reentry Efforts: A Guidebook for Law Enforcement Agencies and Their Partners (2007) (6.04 MB) (44 Pages) Nancy G. La Vigne (To order a printed copy, contact the COPS Response Center at 1-800-421-6770 or use the COPS Publications Request Form COPS Publications Request Form.) Mapping can provide valuable information on how prisoner reentry is affecting local communities, and the extent to which existing resources and services are addressing the needs of reentering populations. The purpose of this guidebook is to explore ways in which mapping can aid police responses to prisoner reentry. This guidebook raises and answers a series of questions designed to walk the reader through the logic of why and how police can take an active role in prisoner reentry efforts and how mapping can aid in those efforts. It describes the reasons behind, and strategies for, engaging in data-sharing partnerships with corrections agencies, followed by a description of useful maps that can be produced. Special attention is paid to describing the various obstacles both to forging reentry partnerships and to mapping reentry data and how those obstacles can be surmounted. The guidebook closes with a discussion of how police agencies, in partnership with corrections, service providers, and community representatives, can use maps to influence changes in policies, practices, and procedures to better enhance public safety by reducing recidivism among released prisoners and apprehending those who do recidivate swiftly and efficiently. Mapping in Police Agencies: Beyond This Point There Be Monsters (2002) (253KB) (16 pages) Lawrence Travis III and Kenneth D. Hughes This monograph explores why more American law enforcement agencies haven’t adopted and fully utilized computerized crime mapping. Travis and Hughes propose that mapping is in an early stage of the innovation cycle and its acceptance and use will accelerate in time. The authors also suggest that computerized crime mapping, despite its potential, remains largely unexplored because it may present unforeseen perils for agencies and executives. Problem Analysis In Policing (2003) (621 KB) (64 pages) Rachel Boba This report introduces and defines problem analysis and provides guidance on how problem analysis can be integrated and institutionalized into modern policing practices. This report is not a "how to" guide on conducting problem analysis, but is a summary of ideas and recommendations about what problem analysis is, what skills and knowledge are necessary to conduct it, and how it can be advanced by the police community, academia, the federal government, and other institutions. The ideas and recommendations in this report come primarily from a two-day forum conducted in February 2002 by the Police Foundation and the US Department of Justice’s Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS Office), in which a group of academics, practitioners, and policy makers came together to discuss problem analysis and make recommendations for its progress. This report is a culmination of the concepts and ideas that were discussed in the forum. Selecting the Best Analyst for the Job: A Model Crime Analyst Assessment Process for Law Enforcement Agencies (2010) (5.34 MB) (72 pages + appendices on CD) Karen L. Amendola and Greg Jones The rapid growth in applications and usage of crime mapping and analysis in law enforcement agencies in recent years has increased job opportunities for new analysts. As crime analysis has become an established profession, there is a need for consensus about the specific knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics and the extent of formalized training necessary for new analysts. Through various discussion channels, including in-house forums, focus groups, visits with crime analysis units, and participation at annual crime mapping conferences, the Police Foundation’s Crime Mapping and Problem Analysis Laboratory recognized the importance of creating hiring standards and a systematic and comprehensive hiring process for selecting highly capable crime analysts. This publication and accompanying CD-ROM focus on defining the job of a crime analyst and on a model procedure for selecting the best possible crime analyst for a law enforcement agency. User Guide to Mapping Software for Police Agencies (8th edition) (2006) (17.7 MB) This report provides an overview of a wide range of mapping software and Geographic Information Systems (GIS), focusing on their functionality and the features that may be of use to law enforcement analysts. Products reviewed in this report encompass a wide range of categories or subject areas, and perform a variety of functions, including: 1) data acquisition and data management, 2) geocoding, 3) crime mapping and analysis, 4) Internet mapping, 5) redistricting, 6) emergency management, 7) routing software, and 8) others, including products from each of the following specialized areas: audio-visual mapping, cartography, data mining, drawing/design, GIS applications development, geospatial imaging, geographic incident tracking/mapping, intelligence analysis, investigative analysis, resource allocation, records management, spatial data analysis, and spatial information systems. The review includes information related to: manufacturer, relevant area of application, contact information, the GIS and operating platforms necessary for the product, and a brief product description. DOMESTIC VIOLENCE/VICTIMSThe Course of Domestic Abuse Among Chicago's Elderly: Risk Factors, Protective Behaviors, and Police Intervention, Police Foundation Report (December 2010) (197 KB) (10 pages) Karen L. Amendola, Meghan G. Slipka, Edwin E. Hamilton, and Julie L. Whitman This study examines if and how risk factors and protective behaviors affect the course of abuse over time and the role of the police in intervening with elderly victims of domestic abuse and/or neglect. The findings suggest that intervention by police officers trained to deal with the elderly and/or domestic abuse victims can lead to increased engagement in protective behaviors and ultimately reductions in the number of frequently occurring forms of abuse. Implications for the law enforcement community’s response to elder abuse victimization as well as limitations of the study are discussed. Customer Satisfaction: Crime Victims’ Willingness to Call the Police (Ideas in American Policing, Number 12, December 2009) (181 KB) (16 pages) Candace Kruttschnitt and Kristin Carbone-Lopez Results from the original victimization survey conducted by the 1967 President’s Crime Commission and the most recent National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) indicate relatively little improvement in citizens’ willingness to call the police when they have been victimized, despite substantial improvements in police recruitment standards and the implementation of community policing. Using data from a sample of women offenders in Minneapolis, who have a low probability of being included in a NCVS, the authors explore who reports crimes to the police and the reasons given for failing to report being victimized. The analyses are confined to crimes of violence perpetrated by intimates, acquaintances, and strangers. Findings indicate both that NCVS data underestimate the extent of non-reporting and that in a substantial number of cases the police failed to respond to citizens’ reports. The authors consider both the practical and theoretical significance of these findings. Minneapolis Domestic Violence Experiment, Police Foundation Report (1984) (266 KB) (13 pages) Lawrence W. Sherman and Richard A. Berk Arresting an assailant in a domestic violence case significantly reduces the likelihood of future violence. In the first scientifically controlled test of the effects of arrest for any crime, arrest was found to be the most effective of three standard responses used by police when responding to cases of domestic violence. Preventing Repeat Incidents of Family Violence: A Randomized Field Test of a Second Responder Program in Redlands, California, Police Foundation Report (December 2007) (191 KB) (11 pages) Robert C. Davis, David Weisburd, and Edwin E. Hamilton This field test, conducted with the cooperation of the Redlands, CA, Police Department, sought to vary one of the parameters thought to affect the impact of second response programs. Victims who called the Redlands police with a domestic abuse complaint were randomly assigned (a) to receive a second response within 24 hours, (b) to receive a second response within seven days, or (c) to receive no second response. A check of police records and surveys with victims six months after the initial complaint was called did not indicate any reduction in new abuse resulting from any second response condition. The current findings, coupled with earlier research results, strongly suggest that second response programs are at best ineffective in reducing the potential for new abuse and at worst may increase the likelihood of new abusive incidents. Implications for criminal justice policy are discussed. Richmond’s Second Responders: Partnering with Police Against Domestic Violence, Police Foundation Report (March 2005) (266 KB) (21 pages) Domestic violence is a significant social problem in the U.S., where over 22 percent of women have suffered an attack by an intimate partner. Over the last two decades, scholars and practitioners have looked into ways to reduce the incidence of domestic violence. One of the strategies being explored employs a broader approach that is both multidisciplinary and multi-agency. This report examines the Richmond, Virginia, Second Responder program in which police summon social service caseworkers to the scene of domestic violence incidents to provide assistance and information to victims. Spouse Abuse Research Raises New Questions About Police Response to Domestic Violence, Police Foundation Report (October 1992) (194 KB) (8 pages) This study, one of several replications of the Minneapolis Domestic Violence Experiment, examined the relationship between arrest of spouse abuse suspects and their subsequent recidivism. Deterrence seemed to be largely limited to employed suspects. DRUG ENFORCEMENTDrugs and Crime Across America: Police Chiefs Speak Out (2004) (231 KB) (20 pages) Drug Strategies and the Police Foundation commissioned Peter D. Hart Research Associates to survey the experience of more than 300 police chiefs across the U.S. who are on the “front lines” in dealing with drugs. This poll builds on a similar survey conducted in 1996 and provides important perspectives on how police chiefs’ attitudes toward drug enforcement have changed in the intervening eight years. Drugs and Crime Across America: Police Chiefs Speak Out (1996) (146 KB) (19 pages) Presents the results of a Peter D. Hart Research Associates survey of more than 300 police chiefs across the nation who are on the "front lines" in dealing with drug abuse and drug crime. This was a joint project of the Police Foundation and Drug Strategies. Prelude to Project Safe Neighborhoods: The Richmond, Virginia, Experience, A Police Foundation Report (January 2004) (192 KB) (9 pages) Edwin E. Hamilton Richmond, Virginia’s successful gun violence reduction program, Project Exile, became a building block for Project Safe Neighborhoods, the massive federal initiative for combating gun violence in the U.S. With support from the Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, the Police Foundation held a series of symposiums across the country that were facilitated by the architects of Project Exile to inform practitioners about factors that were critical to that program’s success. ETHICSThe Abuse of Police Authority: A National Study of Police Officers' Attitudes (2001) (161 KB) (197 pages/41 tables/figures) David Weisburd, Rosann Greenspan, Edwin E. Hamilton, Kellie A. Bryant, and Hubert Williams. The results of the first truly representative national survey of how America's rank-and-file police officers and their supervisors view critical issues of abuse of police authority. Officer responses are also analyzed according to rank, race, region of the U.S., and size of department. The survey instrument with responses is included. Presented are officers' views on:
FIREARMSGuns in America: Results of a Comprehensive National Survey on Firearms Ownership and Use (1997) (9.4 MB) (94 pages) Philip J. Cook and Jens Ludwig This report presents new evidence from a comprehensive national survey on guns in America, the National Survey of Private Owner-ship of Firearms (NSPOF). The NSPOF focuses on four central issues: (1) the size, composition, and ownership of America's gun stock; (2) how and why firearms are acquired; (3) gun storage and carrying; and (4) the defensive use of firearms against criminal attackers. Also included are attitudes toward gun-control regulation. Prelude to Project Safe Neighborhoods: The Richmond, Virginia, Experience, Police Foundation Report (January 2004) (192 KB) (9 pages) Edwin E. Hamilton Richmond, Virginia’s successful gun violence reduction program, Project Exile, became a building block for Project Safe Neighborhoods, the massive federal initiative for combating gun violence in the U.S. With support from the Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, the Police Foundation held a series of symposiums across the country that were facilitated by the architects of Project Exile to inform practitioners about factors that were critical to that program’s success. HOMELAND SECURITY/TERRORISMAn Assessment of the Preparedness of Private Security in Shopping Malls to Prevent and Respond to Terrorist Attack (2006) Robert C. Davis, Christopher Ortiz, Robert Rowe, Joseph Broz, George Rigakos, Pam Collins Full Report (final report to NIJ) (497 KB) (50 pages) This assessment indicates what malls are doing in the areas of risk assessments, preventive measures, emergency preparedness plans, training, and coordination with state and local government. The comprehensive picture that emerges of the state of security in large retail malls suggests that (a) there are significant gaps in preparedness, (b) there are relatively inexpensive steps that can be taken to fill those gaps, and (c) state homeland security officials and local police as well as mall owners and have a role to play in filling those gaps. Integrated Intelligence and Crime Analysis: Enhanced Information Management for Law Enforcement Leaders (2007) (4.3 MB) (48 pages) Jerry H. Ratcliffe (To order a printed copy, contact the COPS Response Center at 1-800-421-6770 or use the COPS Publications Request Form COPS Publications Request Form.) Data and information about the criminal environment and criminal activity abound: the challenge is to corral this wealth of data into knowledge that can enhance decision making, improve strategies to combat crime, and increase crime prevention benefits. In other words, the aim is to convert data and information into actionable intelligence. This report is designed to identify the key challenges limiting criminal intelligence sharing, the aims of the integrated analysis model, and the way that all police departments, big or small, can work individually and collectively towards the new intelligence-led policing paradigm of modern policing. Post-911 Policing A joint project of the International Association of Chiefs of Police, the National Sheriffs' Association, the National Organization of Black Law Enforcement Executives, the Major Cities Chiefs Association, and the Police Foundation to help position state, local, and tribal agencies to proactively manage a changed and continually changing policing environment. The promising-practice monographs below were published in September 2005 and are online at the National Criminal Justice Reference Service (www.ncjrs.gov). Clicking on the URLs below will open a new window in your browser. Assessing and Managing the Terrorism Threat (NCJ 210680) Engaging the Private Sector To Promote Homeland Security: Law Enforcement-Private Security Partnerships (NCJ 210678) Intelligence-Led Policing: The New Intelligence Architecture (NCJ 210681) Mutual Aid: Multijurisdictional Partnerships for Meeting Regional Needs (NCJ 210679) IDEAS IN AMERICAN POLICINGIMMIGRATIONThe Role of Local Police: Striking a Balance Between Immigration Enforcement and Civil Liberties This 256-page report presents findings and recommendations from the Police Foundation’s year-long national effort that examined the implications of immigration enforcement at the local level. The project brought together law enforcement executives, policy makers, elected officials, scholars, and community representatives in a series of focus groups across the country and at a national conference in Washington. The report includes research on the rights of undocumented immigrants and the legal framework for enforcement of immigration laws, demographics, immigration and criminality, evaluation of federal efforts to collaborate with local police on immigration enforcement (287(g) program), a national survey of local police immigration policies, the experience of undocumented youth, and a survey of law enforcement executives attending the foundation conference about their views on local immigration enforcement issues. Immigration Resources (120 KB) (7 pages) This is a resource list demonstrating the focus of the 2008 Police Foundation conference: The Role of Local Police: Striking A Balance Between Immigration Enforcement and Civil Liberties. This list contains resources discussing immigration issues such as crime and incarceration and economic impact. It also contains articles and reports discussing the role of local and state government entities in enforcing federal immigration laws, along with associated issues, risks, and consequences. Additional resources are included and are categorized by source. PATROLThe Kansas City Preventive Patrol Experiment (Summary Report) (1974) (336 KB) George Kelling, Tony Pate, Duane Dieckman, and Charles Brown. This landmark experiment found that traditional routine patrol in marked police cars does not appear to affect the level of crime, nor does it affect the public’s feeling of security, thus refuting a tradition that had prevailed in policing for almost 150 years. The experiment demonstrated that urban police departments can successfully test patrol deployment strategies and that they can manipulate patrol resources without jeopardizing public safety. The Newark Foot Patrol Experiment (1981) (Research Brief) The results of this experiment suggest that while foot patrol may not reduce crime, it reduces citizen fear of crime. Residents see their communities as safer and better places to live, and are more satisfied with police services. PERSONNEL (EDUCATION, PERFORMANCE, RECRUITMENT, SELECTION, TRAINING)Policewomen on Patrol (1974) (Research Brief) This study demonstrated that gender is not a valid reason to bar women from patrol work. Women perform patrol tasks as well as men. Reconciling Higher Educational Standards and Minority Recruitment: The New York City Model Police Foundation Report (September 1992) (251 KB) (8 pages) This is a report of the findings of a study of New York City's innovative Police Cadet Corps. The study found that police departments could improve levels of education and simultaneously increase minority representation. Selecting the Best Analyst for the Job: A Model Crime Analyst Assessment Process for Law Enforcement Agencies (2010) (5.34 MB) (72 pages + appendices on CD) Karen L. Amendola and Greg Jones The rapid growth in applications and usage of crime mapping and analysis in law enforcement agencies in recent years has increased job opportunities for new analysts. As crime analysis has become an established profession, there is a need for consensus about the specific knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics and the extent of formalized training necessary for new analysts. Through various discussion channels, including in-house forums, focus groups, visits with crime analysis units, and participation at annual crime mapping conferences, the Police Foundation’s Crime Mapping and Problem Analysis Laboratory recognized the importance of creating hiring standards and a systematic and comprehensive hiring process for selecting highly capable crime analysts. This publication and accompanying CD-ROM focus on defining the job of a crime analyst and on a model procedure for selecting the best possible crime analyst for a law enforcement agency. Women on the Move? A Report on the Status of Women in Policing, Police Foundation Report (May 1989) (414KB) (8 pages) Susan E. Martin. A summary of the 1990 foundation report that documents the greater role that women have come to play in policing since Police Foundation research in the 1970s proved that women could be effective patrol officers. PRACTICES & STRATEGIESArresting Shoplifters (Research Brief) In1983, the Police Foundation undertook a study to determine whether arrest can indeed deter shoplifting. Researchers found that the shoplifters who were arrested were neither more nor less likely as a group to commit future shoplifting offenses than were those who had been detained by store security personnel and released. Catching Career Criminals: The Washington, DC, Repeat Offender Project (ROP), Police Foundation Report. (1986) (232 KB) (25 pages) Susan E. Martin and Lawrence W. Sherman Two facts have been central to the debate on controlling street crime. First, a relatively small number of career criminals commit a disproportionate amount of crime. Second, prisons are overcrowded. The combination of these two factors has spurred interest in focusing police resources on catching the most active and dangerous chronic offenders. This is the report of the Police Foundation’s evaluation of the Washington, DC, Metropolitan Police Department’s project to apprehend career criminals. The Police Foundation Displacement and Diffusion Study. Police Foundation Report (September 2010) (800 KB) (14 pages) David Weisburd, Laura A. Wycoff, Justin Ready, John E. Eck, Josh Hinkle, and Frank Gajewski Recent studies point to the potential theoretical and practical benefits of focusing police resources on crime hot spots. However, many scholars have noted that such approaches risk displacing crime or disorder to other places where programs are not in place. Although much attention has been paid to the idea of displacement, methodological problems associated with measuring it have often been overlooked. We try to fill these gaps in measurement and understanding of displacement and the related phenomenon of diffusion of crime control benefits. Our main focus is on immediate spatial displacement or diffusion of crime to areas near the targeted sites of an intervention. Do focused crime prevention efforts at places simply result in a movement of offenders to areas nearby targeted sites—do they simply move crime around the corner? Or, conversely, will a crime prevention effort focusing on specific places lead to improvement in areas nearby—what has come to be termed a diffusion of crime control benefits? Our data are drawn from a controlled study of displacement and diffusion in Jersey City, New Jersey. Our findings indicate that, at least for crime markets involving drugs and prostitution, crime does not simply move around the corner. Indeed, this study supports the position that the most likely outcome of such focused crime prevention efforts is a diffusion of crime control benefits to nearby areas. Evidence-Based Policing (Ideas in American Policing, Number 2, July 1998) (87KB) (16 pages) Lawrence Sherman examines how the new paradigm of "evidence-based medicine" holds important implications for policing. It suggests that just doing research is not enough and that proactive efforts are required to push accumulated research evidence into practice through national and community guidelines. National pressure to adopt this paradigm could come from agency-ranking studies, but police agency capacity to adopt it will require new data systems creating "medical charts" for crime victims, annual audits of crime reporting systems, and in-house "evidence cops". Integrated Intelligence and Crime Analysis: Enhanced Information Management for Law Enforcement Leaders (2007) (4.3 MB) (48 pages) Jerry H. Ratcliffe Data and information about the criminal environment and criminal activity abound: the challenge is to corral this wealth of data into knowledge that can enhance decision making, improve strategies to combat crime, and increase crime prevention benefits. In other words, the aim is to convert data and information into actionable intelligence. This report is designed to identify the key challenges limiting criminal intelligence sharing, the aims of the integrated analysis model, and the way that all police departments, big or small, can work individually and collectively towards the new intelligence-led policing paradigm of modern policing. Law Enforcement for Lawabiders (Ideas in American Policing, Number 8, January 2007) (117KB) (8 pages) Tracey L. Meares Why do people comply with the law? Professor Tracey Meares explores the power of private social control in controlling and reducing crime. By employing strategies that enhance legitimacy and accountability, police can be catalysts for promoting lawabiding behavior, particularly in crime-plagued communities. A Multijurisdictional Assessment of Traffic Enforcement and Data Collection in Kansas (February 2003) (1.21 MB) (182 pages, 64 tables, 14 maps) Though the practice of racial profiling is common knowledge, attempts to prove its existence have relied mainly on anecdotal accounts and piecemeal, though suggestive, evidence. The campaign for systematic data collection on traffic stops gained momentum in 1999, following allegations that New Jersey state police engaged in a pattern of discriminatory traffic enforcement. Since that time, jurisdictions across the country have begun to examine their own enforcement practices. The State of Kansas commissioned this study to collect information on the nature, character, and demographics of police enforcement practices. The Newark Foot Patrol Experiment (1981) (Research Brief) The results of this experiment suggest that while foot patrol may not reduce crime, it reduces citizen fear of crime. Residents see their communities as safer and better places to live, and are more satisfied with police services. On Democratic Policing (Ideas in American Policing, Number 4, August 1999) (43KB) (8 pages) From Aristotle to William Bratton, the fundamental principles of democratic policing are explored in this monograph by Jerome Skolnick. Emeritus Professor of Law, Jurisprudence, and Social Policy, UC-Berkeley, and Co-Director, Center for Research in Crime and Justice, NYU Law School, Skolnick examines police strategies and practices that challenge the delicate balance of maintaining public safety without sacrificing basic freedoms. Place-Based Policing (Ideas in American Policing, Number 9, January 2008) (439 KB) (16 pages) David Weisburd The core practices of policing assume that people, whether victims or offenders, are the key units of police work, but police in recent years have also begun to think about the situations and places that are the context of crime. In this essay, Professor David Weisburd argues that police should put places rather than people at the center of police practices. Place-based policing, Weisburd explains, is more efficient as a focus of police actions; provides a more stable target for police activities; has a stronger evidence base; and raises fewer ethical and legal problems. He suggests practical ways in which places can become a key component of the databases that police use, of the geographic organization of police activities, of the strategic approaches that police employ to combat crime and disorder, and in the definitions of the role of the police in urban settings. Police Departments as Learning Laboratories (Ideas in American Policing, Number 6, August 2004) (140 KB) (16 pages) Edward R. Maguire Police agencies are often unable to state with any degree of precision how their performance has changed over time or how it compares with their peers. Professor Edward Maguire proposes how police agencies can make greater use of information and measurement to enhance their capacity for organizational learning and assessment. Policing Anonymity (Ideas in American Policing, Number 5, December 2001) (108KB) (12 pages) Donald Foster is a professor of English at Vassar College. In his "other life" as an attributional expert, Professor Foster works with law enforcement agencies and the media to determine authorship of disputed documents, including forgeries, threats, ransom notes, and anonymous tips. He is best known for identifying Joe Klein as the author of the best-selling anonymous novel, Primary Colors, and for identifying Shakespeare as the writer of a previously unattributed funeral poem. In Policing Anonymity, Professor Foster discusses the kinds of problems posed by anonymous writings in criminal investigations, and how best to address those problems from the crime scene to the courtroom. Policing For People (Ideas in American Policing, Number 3, March 1999) (57KB) (12 pages) Stephen D. Mastrofski Professor Stephen Mastrofski identifies six characteristics that Americans associate with good service from their police: attentiveness, reliability, responsiveness, competence, manners, and fairness. He assesses how police are doing at "policing for people" and offers a reform agenda that promotes its practice. Policing Through Human Rights (Ideas in American Policing, Number 13, December 2010) (177 KB) (20 pages) Jack R. Greene Democratic policing is founded on the idea that the police must enforce the law, within the law—a law that values individual and human rights. In this essay, Professor Jack Greene considers how policing in America and elsewhere can embrace human rights as a central tenant of effective law enforcement, thereby improving how the police function as well as their acceptance in the larger community. The essay gives voice to how the police secure, uphold, and affirm human rights in their day-to-day activities, protecting the vulnerable, assuring that those brought before the law are accorded legal rights and dignity, and reaffirming human rights in the aftermath of traumatic events. Policing Through Human Rights affirms American policing through its foundational values, helping to ensure greater police awareness of their role in the protection of human rights and greater community support for police interventions. Prelude to Project Safe Neighborhoods: The Richmond, Virginia, Experience, Police Foundation Report (January 2004) (192 KB) (9 pages) Edwin E. Hamilton Richmond, Virginia’s successful gun violence reduction program, Project Exile, became a building block for Project Safe Neighborhoods, the massive federal initiative for combating gun violence in the U.S. With support from the Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, the Police Foundation held a series of symposiums across the country that were facilitated by the architects of Project Exile to inform practitioners about factors that were critical to that program’s success. Problem Analysis In Policing (2003) (621 KB) (64 pages) Rachel Boba This report introduces and defines problem analysis and provides guidance on how problem analysis can be integrated and institutionalized into modern policing practices. This report is not a "how to" guide on conducting problem analysis, but is a summary of ideas and recommendations about what problem analysis is, what skills and knowledge are necessary to conduct it, and how it can be advanced by the police community, academia, the federal government, and other institutions. The ideas and recommendations in this report come primarily from a two-day forum conducted in February 2002 by the Police Foundation and the US Department of Justice’s Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS Office), in which a group of academics, practitioners, and policy makers came together to discuss problem analysis and make recommendations for its progress. This report is a culmination of the concepts and ideas that were discussed in the forum. The Quality of Police Arrest Statistics. Police Foundation Report (August 1984) (275 KB) (10 pages) Lawrence W. Sherman and Barry D. Glick For both operational planning and basic research, arrest data are an indispensable tool. This report shows how and why arrest statistics are not comparable across police departments. Reducing Fear of Crime in Houston and Newark: A Summary Report (1986) (420 KB) (47 pages) Antony Pate, Mary Ann Wycoff, Wesley G. Skogan, and Lawrence W. Sherman While crime is a major problem in many cities, citizen fear of crime often exceeds the actual risk of being victimized. This fear produces a fortress mentality among residents. It makes citizens suspicious of one another and erodes the sense of community upon which neighborhood life depends. Ultimately, it can result in urban decay and flight from our cities. The first empirical study of police efforts to reduce fear of crime, this project demonstrated that such programs can be successfully carried out. This research shows that if police officers work harder at talking and listening to citizens, they can reduce citizen fear of crime and, in some cases, reduce crime itself. And importantly, police departments can initiate these strategies without increasing their budgets. A Test of Simultaneous vs. Sequential Lineup Methods: An Initial Report of the AJS National Eyewitness Identification Field Studies (September 2011) (4.36 MB) (28 pages) Gary L. Wells, Nancy K. Steblay, and Jennifer E. Dysart The study, implemented by the American Judicature Society, in collaboration with the Police Foundation, the Innocence Project, and the Center for Problem-Oriented Policing, finds that double-blind sequential lineups—lineups where the administering officer doesn’t know which person is the suspect and the witness views one suspect at a time—produce fewer mistaken identifications than lineup procedures that present all suspect photographs at once or simultaneously. The report has implications for reducing wrongful convictions in the U.S. criminal justice system. Eyewitness identification is the single greatest cause of wrongful convictions nationwide. Translating Police Research into Practice (Ideas in American Policing, Number 11, August 2009) (741 KB) (16 pages) Cynthia Lum In one of the first Ideas in American Policing lectures, Lawrence Sherman argued that "...police practices should be based on scientific evidence about what works best" (1998, 2). That is, if the police want to reduce and prevent crime, they have to rely on tactics that are supported by information, analysis, and evidence showing effectiveness. Eleven years later, the idea of evidence-based policing, while seemingly logical and beneficial, has yet to diffuse widely into law enforcement. In her Ideas monograph,Professor Cynthia Lum explores the reasons for the lag in the adoption of evidence-based policing, and introduces a tool, the Evidence-Based Policing Matrix, which may better facilitate translating research into practice. In order for police agencies to move towards evidence-based policing, the underlying research and practice infrastructure that has already been built for such efforts must be capitalized upon and a concerted effort is required between police practitioners, evaluation researchers, and funding agencies Shift LengthThe Shift Length Experiment: What We Know About 8-, 10-, and 12-Hour Shifts in Policing December 2011. (1.35 MB) 60 pages. by Karen L. Amendola, David Weisburd, Edwin E. Hamilton, Greg Jones, Meghan Slipka, with Anneke Heitmann, Jon Shane, Christopher Ortiz, Eliab Tarkghen This report presents the results of the first known comprehensive randomized experiment of compressed workweeks in law enforcement. The experiment was designed to test the impacts of three shift lengths (8-, 10-, and 12-hour) on performance, health, safety, quality of life, sleep, fatigue, alertness, off-duty employment, and overtime among police. In addition to scientifically rigorous research design and methodology, the number of reliable outcome measures employed to analyze the impact of shift length, including departmental data, laboratory simulations and exercises, and previously validated self-report instruments, make this study one of the most comprehensive ever undertaken in this area. The experiment was conducted in the Detroit (MI) and Arlington (TX) Police Departments between January 2007 and June 2009. The study found some distinct advantages of 10-hour shifts and identified some disadvantages associated with 12-hour shifts that are concerning. In addition to the primary project report above, additional reports from the shift length experiment are available as follows. Results of a Random National Survey of Police Agencies: As part of the shift length experiment, the Police Foundation conducted a random telephone survey of 300 police agencies to determine the proportion of agencies that have adopted compressed schedules. We also examined variables based on agency size and the use of shift rotation, as well as trends associated with each over time. The purposes of this telephone survey, conducted first in November 2005 and again in November 2009, were to determine the proportion of agencies that use compressed shift schedules (e.g., 8-, 10-, or 12- hour shifts or some variation) for their field patrol officers, and to identify the extent to which agencies employ rotating shifts. The first report below is a comparison report of the survey results in Time One and Time Two. Trends in Shift Length: Results of a Random National Survey of Police Agencies Law Enforcement Shift Schedules: Results of a 2005 Random National Survey of Police Agencies May 2006; revised November 2011. (127 KB) 5 pages. Karen L. Amendola. Edwin E. Hamilton, Laura A. Wyckoff Law Enforcement Shift Schedules: Results of a 2009 Random National Survey of Police Agencies November 2011. (132 KB) 6 pages. Karen L. Amendola, Meghan G. Slipka, Edwin E. Hamilton, Michael Soelberg Final reports submitted to the National Institute of Justice: The Impact of Shift Length in Policing on Performance, Health, Quality of Life, Sleep, Fatigue, and Extra-Duty Employment Karen L. Amendola, David Weisburd, Edwin E. Hamilton, Greg Jones, Meghan Slipka USE OF FORCEThe Abuse of Police Authority: A National Study of Police Officers' Attitudes (2001) (161 KB) (197 pages/41 tables/figures) David Weisburd, Rosann Greenspan, Edwin E. Hamilton, Kellie A. Bryant, and Hubert Williams. The results of the first truly representative national survey of how America's rank-and-file police officers and their supervisors view critical issues of abuse of police authority. Officer responses are also analyzed according to rank, race, region of the U.S., and size of department. The survey instrument with responses is included. Presented are officers' views on:
Officer Behavior in Police-Citizen Encounters: A Descriptive Model and Implications for Less-Than-Lethal Alternatives, Police Foundation Report (September 1996), (286KB) (7 pages) Karen L. Amendola A descriptive model of police-citizen encounters and the role of the police officer in them is presented in this report. This model is built on the understanding that in determining influences on officer behavior, it is more important to focus on risk factors present in all these encounters rather than simply on the type of situation. This report is part of a larger study which analyzed data concerning several types of police-citizen encounters to ascertain characteristics of those encounters, paying particular attention to how control tactics and technologies might be applied. Police Pursuits After Scott v Harris: Far from Ideal? (Ideas in American Policing, Number 10, June 2008) (260 KB) (16 pages) Geoffrey P. Alpert and William C. Smith Police pursuits remain one of the most dangerous activities in which the police participate. Every high-speed pursuit involves a serious threat to innocent bystanders, officers and suspects. For years, agencies as well as the courts have used the facts and holdings in Tennessee v Garner to determine when deadly force can be used in a pursuit. Since the Garner decision in 1985, it has been understood that the police may not use deadly force to seize a fleeing suspect unless the suspect poses a significant threat of death or serious bodily harm to officers or others. This paper looks at the U.S. Supreme Court’s recent analysis of Garner in the Scott v Harris decision and discusses the implications that analysis may have for policing in America. Social Theory and the Street Cop: The Case of Deadly Force (Ideas in American Policing, Number 7, June 2005) (116KB) (16 pages) David Klinger David Klinger is Associate Professor of Criminology and Criminal Justice at the University of Missouri-St. Louis and a former Los Angeles and Redmond (WA) police officer. In this monograph, he explores the dynamics of police-citizen encounters, and examines how social scientific theory can influence police officers’ use of deadly force as well as the public’s understanding of the social reality of deadly force in our society. IDEAS IN AMERICAN POLICINGPresents commentary and insight from leading criminologists on issues of interest to practitioners, scholars, and policy makers. The papers published in this series are from the Police Foundation lecture series of the same name. Policing
in America: Assessment and Prospects (40KB)
David Bayley, former dean of the School of Criminal Justice at the State University of New York at Albany, addresses three questions: (1) what is distinctive about American policing? (2) what are the major changes that have occurred in American policing over the last 30 years? and (3) what are the factors currently shaping American policing? Evidence-Based
Policing (87KB) Professor Lawrence Sherman examines how the new paradigm of "evidence-based medicine" holds important implications for policing. It suggests that just doing research is not enough and that proactive efforts are required to push accumulated research evidence into practice through national and community guidelines. National pressure to adopt this paradigm could come from agency-ranking studies, but police agency capacity to adopt it will require new data systems creating "medical charts" for crime victims, annual audits of crime reporting systems, and in-house "evidence cops". Policing
For People (57KB)
Professor Stephen Mastrofski identifies six characteristics that Americans associate with good service from their police: attentiveness, reliability, responsiveness, competence, manners, attentiveness, reliability, responsiveness, competence, manners, and fairness. He assesses how police are doing at "policing for people" and offers a reform agenda that promotes its practice On
Democratic Policing (43KB)
From Aristotle to William Bratton, the fundamental principles of democratic policing are explored in this monograph by Jerome Skolnick. Emeritus Professor of Law, Jurisprudence, and Social Policy, UC-Berkeley, and Co-Director, Center for Research in Crime and Justice, NYU Law School, Skolnick examines police strategies and practices that challenge the delicate balance of maintaining public safety without sacrificing basic freedoms. Policing
Anonymity (108KB)
Donald Foster is a professor of English at Vassar College. In his "other life" as an attributional expert, Professor Foster works with law enforcement agencies and the media to determine authorship of disputed documents, including forgeries, threats, ransom notes, and anonymous tips. He is best known for identifying Joe Klein as the author of the best-selling anonymous novel, Primary Colors, and for identifying Shakespeare as the writer of a previously unattributed funeral poem. In Policing Anonymity, Professor Foster discusses the kinds of problems posed by anonymous writings in criminal investigations, and how best to address those problems from the crime scene to the courtroom. Police Departments as Learning Laboratories (140 KB) Police agencies are often unable to state with any degree of precision how their performance has changed over time or how it compares with their peers. Professor Edward Maguire proposes how police agencies can make greater use of information and measurement to enhance their capacity for organizational learning and assessment. Please click here for the Portuguese version: Departamentos de Polícia como Laboratórios de Aprendizagem (122 KB) Social
Theory and the Street Cop: The Case of Deadly Force (116KB) David Klinger is Associate Professor of Criminology and Criminal Justice at the University of Missouri-St. Louis and a former Los Angeles and Redmond (WA) police officer. In this monograph, he explores the dynamics of police-citizen encounters, and examines how social scientific theory can influence police officers’ use of deadly force as well as the public’s understanding of the social reality of deadly force in our society. Law Enforcement for Lawabiders (117KB) Why do people comply with the law? Professor Tracey Meares explores the power of private social control in controlling and reducing crime. By employing strategies that enhance legitimacy and accountability, police can be catalysts for promoting lawabiding behavior, particularly in crime-plagued communities. Place-Based Policing (439 KB) The core practices of policing assume that people, whether victims or offenders, are the key units of police work, but police in recent years have also begun to think about the situations and places that are the context of crime. In this essay, Professor David Weisburd argues that police should put places rather than people at the center of police practices. Place-based policing, Weisburd explains, is more efficient as a focus of police actions; provides a more stable target for police activities; has a stronger evidence base; and raises fewer ethical and legal problems. He suggests practical ways in which places can become a key component of the databases that police use, of the geographic organization of police activities, of the strategic approaches that police employ to combat crime and disorder, and in the definitions of the role of the police in urban settings. Police Pursuits After Scott v Harris: Far from Ideal? (260 KB) Police pursuits remain one of the most dangerous activities in which the police participate. Every high-speed pursuit involves a serious threat to innocent bystanders, officers and suspects. For years, agencies as well as the courts have used the facts and holdings in Tennessee v Garner to determine when deadly force can be used in a pursuit. Since the Garner decision in 1985, it has been understood that the police may not use deadly force to seize a fleeing suspect unless the suspect poses a significant threat of death or serious bodily harm to officers or others. This paper looks at the U.S. Supreme Court’s recent analysis of Garner in the Scott v Harris decision and discusses the implications that analysis may have for policing in America. Translating Police Research into Practice (741 KB) Cynthia Lum (Number 11, August 2009) (16 pages) In one of the first Ideas in American Policing lectures, Lawrence Sherman argued that "...police practices should be based on scientific evidence about what works best" (1998, 2). That is, if the police want to reduce and prevent crime, they have to rely on tactics that are supported by information, analysis, and evidence showing effectiveness. Eleven years later, the idea of evidence-based policing, while seemingly logical and beneficial, has yet to diffuse widely into law enforcement. In her Ideas monograph, Cynthia Lum explores the reasons for the lag in the adoption of evidence-based policing, and introduces a tool, the Evidence-Based Policing Matrix (Lum, Koper and Telep 2009), which may better facilitate translating research into practice. In order for police agencies to move towards evidence-based policing, the underlying research and practice infrastructure that has already been built for such efforts must be capitalized upon and a concerted effort is required between police practitioners, evaluation researchers, and funding agencies Customer Satisfaction: Crime Victims' Willingness to Call the Police (181 KB) Candace Kruttschnitt and Kristin Carbone-Lopez Policing Through Human Rights (177 KB) Police Foundation Reportsresearch-in-briefs of selected foundation research projects An Assessment of the Preparedness of Private Security in Shopping Malls to Prevent and Respond to Terrorist Attack Police Foundation Report (January 2006) (183 KB) (9 pages) Robert C. Davis, Christopher Ortiz, Robert Rowe, Joseph Broz, George Rigakos, Pam Collins This assessment indicates what malls are doing in the areas of risk assessments, preventive measures, emergency preparedness plans, training, and coordination with state and local government. The comprehensive picture that emerges of the state of security in large retail malls suggests that (a) there are significant gaps in preparedness, (b) there are relatively inexpensive steps that can be taken to fill those gaps, and (c) state homeland security officials and local police as well as mall owners and have a role to play in filling those gaps Catching Career Criminals: The Washington, DC, Repeat Offender Project (ROP) , Police Foundation Report (July 1986) (232 KB) (25 pages) Susan E. Martin and Lawrence W. Sherman. Two facts have been central to the debate on controlling street crime. First, a relatively small number of career criminals commit a disproportionate amount of crime. Second, prisons are overcrowded. The combination of these two factors has spurred interest in focusing police resources on catching the most active and dangerous chronic offenders. This is the report of the Police Foundation’s evaluation of the Washington, DC, Metropolitan Police Department’s project to apprehend career criminals. The Course of Domestic Abuse Among Chicago's Elderly: Risk Factors, Protective Behaviors, and Police Intervention, Police Foundation Report (December 2010) (197 KB) (10 pages) Karen L. Amendola, Meghan G. Slipka, Edwin E. Hamilton, and Julie L. Whitman This study examines if and how risk factors and protective behaviors affect the course of abuse over time and the role of the police in intervening with elderly victims of domestic abuse and/or neglect. The findings suggest that intervention by police officers trained to deal with the elderly and/or domestic abuse victims can lead to increased engagement in protective behaviors and ultimately reductions in the number of frequently occurring forms of abuse. Implications for the law enforcement community’s response to elder abuse victimization as well as limitations of the study are discussed. The Police Foundation Displacement and Diffusion Study, Police Foundation Report (September 2010) (800 KB) (14 pages) David Weisburd, Laura A. Wycoff, Justin Ready, John E. Eck, Josh Hinkle, and Frank Gajewski Recent studies point to the potential theoretical and practical benefits of focusing police resources on crime hot spots. However, many scholars have noted that such approaches risk displacing crime or disorder to other places where programs are not in place. Although much attention has been paid to the idea of displacement, methodological problems associated with measuring it have often been overlooked. We try to fill these gaps in measurement and understanding of displacement and the related phenomenon of diffusion of crime control benefits. Our main focus is on immediate spatial displacement or diffusion of crime to areas near the targeted sites of an intervention. Do focused crime prevention efforts at places simply result in a movement of offenders to areas nearby targeted sites—do they simply move crime around the corner? Or, conversely, will a crime prevention effort focusing on specific places lead to improvement in areas nearby—what has come to be termed a diffusion of crime control benefits? Our data are drawn from a controlled study of displacement and diffusion in Jersey City, New Jersey. Our findings indicate that, at least for crime markets involving drugs and prostitution, crime does not simply move around the corner. Indeed, this study supports the position that the most likely outcome of such focused crime prevention efforts is a diffusion of crime control benefits to nearby areas. The Growth of Compstat in American Policing: A Police Foundation Report, Police Foundation Report (April 2004) (211 KB) (18 pages) David Weisburd, Stephen D. Mastrofski, Rosann Greenspan, and James J. Willis This research-in-brief describes the national survey that assessed the number of U.S. police agencies using Compstat and measured the degree to which the elements of Compstat were part of their routine and structure. This is the second report in a series of three that resulted from the larger, NIJ-funded project, Compstat and Organizational Change: Findings from a National Survey. Minneapolis Domestic Violence Experiment, Police Foundation Report (April 1984) (266 KB) (13 pages) Lawrence W. Sherman and Richard A. Berk Arresting an assailant in a domestic violence case significantly reduces the likelihood of future violence. In the first scientifically controlled test of the effects of arrest for any crime, arrest was found to be the most effective of three standard responses used by police when responding to cases of domestic violence. Officer Behavior in Police-Citizen Encounters: A Descriptive Model and Implications for Less-than-Lethal Alternatives, Police Foundation Report (September 1996) (286 KB) (7 pages) Karen L. Amendola This model is built on the understanding that in determining influences on officer behavior, it is more important to focus on risk factors present in all these encounters rather than simply on the type of situation. This report grew out of a larger study that analyzed police-citizen encounters to ascertain characteristics of those encounters, paying particular attention to how control tactics and technologies might be applied. Prelude to Project Safe Neighborhoods: The Richmond, Virginia, Experience, Police Foundation Report (January 2004) (192 KB) (9 pages) Edwin E. Hamilton Richmond, Virginia’s successful gun violence reduction program, Project Exile, became a building block for Project Safe Neighborhoods, the massive federal initiative for combating gun violence in the U.S. With support from the Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, the Police Foundation held a series of symposiums across the country that were facilitated by the architects of Project Exile to inform practitioners about factors that were critical to that program’s success. Preventing Repeat Incidents of Family Violence: A Randomized Field Test of a Second Responder Program in Redlands, California, Police Foundation Report (December 2007) (191 KB) (11 pages) Robert C. Davis, David Weisburd, and Edwin E. Hamilton This field test, conducted with the cooperation of the Redlands, CA, Police Department, sought to vary one of the parameters thought to affect the impact of second response programs. Victims who called the Redlands police with a domestic abuse complaint were randomly assigned (a) to receive a second response within 24 hours, (b) to receive a second response within seven days, or (c) to receive no second response. A check of police records and surveys with victims six months after the initial complaint was called did not indicate any reduction in new abuse resulting from any second response condition. The current findings, coupled with earlier research results, strongly suggest that second response programs are at best ineffective in reducing the potential for new abuse and at worst may increase the likelihood of new abusive incidents. Implications for criminal justice policy are discussed. The Quality of Police Arrest Statistics, Police Foundation Report (August 1984) (275KB) (10 pages) Lawrence W. Sherman and Barry D. Glick For both operational planning and basic research, arrest data are an indispensable tool. This report shows how and why arrest statistics are not comparable across police departments. Richmond’s Second Responders: Partnering with Police Against Domestic Violence, Police Foundation Report (March 2005) (266 KB) (21 pages) Domestic violence is a significant social problem in the U.S., where over 22 percent of women have suffered an attack by an intimate partner. Over the last two decades, scholars and practitioners have looked into ways to reduce the incidence of domestic violence. One of the strategies being explored employs a broader approach that is both multidisciplinary and multi-agency. This report examines the Richmond, Virginia, Second Responder program in which police summon social service caseworkers to the scene of domestic violence incidents to provide assistance and information to victims. Spouse Abuse Research Raises New Questions About Police Response to Domestic Violence, Police Foundation Report (October 1992) (194 KB) (8 pages) This study, one of several replications of the Minneapolis Domestic Violence Experiment, examined the relationship between arrest of spouse abuse suspects and their subsequent recidivism. Deterrence seemed to be largely limited to employed suspects. Trends in Shift Length: Results of a Random National Survey of Police Agencies Police Foundation Report, December 2011. (155 KB) 7 pages. Karen L. Amendola, Meghan G. Slipka, Edwin E. Hamilton, with Michael Soelberg and Kristen Koval As part of the shift length experiment, the Police Foundation conducted a random telephone survey of 300 police agencies to determine the proportion of agencies that have adopted compressed schedules. We also examined variables based on agency size and the use of shift rotation, as well as trends associated with each over time. The purposes of this telephone survey, conducted first in November 2005 and again in November 2009, were to determine the proportion of agencies that use compressed shift schedules (e.g., 8-, 10-, or 12- hour shifts, or some variation) for their field patrol officers, and to identify the extent to which agencies employ rotating shifts. Women on the Move? A Report on the Status of Women in Policing, Police Foundation Report (May 1989) (414KB) (8 pages) Susan E. Martin. A summary of the full 1990 foundation report that documents the greater role that women have come to play in policing since Police Foundation research in the 1970s proved that women could be effective patrol officers. RESEARCH BRIEFS : Two-page summaries of selected Police Foundation research projects.
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